Abstract
Insect immunity is assorted into humoral and cellular immune reactions. Humoral reactions involve the regulated production of anti-microbial peptides, which directly kill microbial invaders at the membrane and intracellular levels. In cellular immune reactions, millions of hemocytes are mobilized to sites of infection and replaced by hematopoiesis at a high biological cost after the immune defense. Here, we considered that the high biological costs of maintaining and replacing hemocytes would be a better investment if hemocytes carried out meaningful biological actions unrelated to cellular immunity. This idea allows us to treat a set of 10 hemocyte actions that are not directly involved in immunity, some of which, so far, are known only in
Drosophila melanogaster
. These include (1) their actions in molting and development, (2) in surviving severe hypoxia, (3) producing phenoloxidase precursor and its actions beyond immunity, (4) producing vitellogenin in a leafhopper, (5) recognition and responses to cancer in
Drosophila
, (6) non-immune actions in
Drosophila
, (7) clearing apoptotic cells during development of the central nervous system, (8) developing hematopoietic niches in
Drosophila
, (9) synthesis and transport of a lipoprotein, and (10) hemocyte roles in iron transport. We propose that the biological significance of hemocytes extends considerably beyond immunity.